Classicism in Russian literature of the 18th century and its originality. Classicism in Russian literature of the second half of the 18th century. Creativity Sumarokov A.P. (lecture summary) Classicism in Russian literature of the 18th century

Without taking into account the nationally determined humanistic ideology and its originality, it is impossible to understand and historically specifically explain the most important moments in the aesthetic development of literature of the 18th century. The influence of this ideology first of all affected the artistic practice of the great poets of Russian classicism.

Classicism as a certain direction was formed first of all in France in the 17th century. Using the achievements of philosophical thought contemporary to it, French classicism freed a person from the influence of religious and church morality, putting forward the human mind as the supreme and indisputable authority.

In this, he relied on the experience of the development of mankind in its constant striving to establish a person as the highest value of being, to defend his rights, to determine everything truly beautiful in him. Thus, classicism, acting as the heir to antiquity, in the art of which, first of all, it found the ideal expression of human capabilities, spiritually united humanity, developed a common language of art.

Thus, the conditions were prepared and the possibility of expressing in this language original ideals, individual experience of the historical life of each individual nation, uniquely national solutions to universal human problems, revealing the ideal of a person in its concrete manifestation, in living social practice, in its social, national and historical conditionality.

Russian classicism, entering the historical arena a century later, was a necessary stage in the development of Russian literature as a pan-European literature. He responded to the need to create a national art and therefore developed with extraordinary intensity.

Classicism created a multi-genre art, but it asserted its existence only as a poetic word. Russian poetry of the XVIII century. and performed within the framework of classicism. Its advanced development was a historically natural phenomenon. Prose will develop later - from the 1760s. and on a different aesthetic basis. Through the efforts of several generations of poets, many genres of lyrical and satirical poetry were developed.

Classical poets (Lomonosov, Sumarokov, Kheraskov, Knyaznin) approved the genre of tragedy, thereby preparing the conditions for the organization and successful operation of the Russian theater: the Russian theater, created in 1756, began its work under the direction of Sumarokov. Classicism, having begun the creation of national literature, contributed to the development of the ideals of citizenship, formed the idea of ​​a heroic character, raised poetic culture highly, included the artistic experience of ancient and European art in national literature, and showed the ability of poetry to analytically reveal the spiritual world of man.

Classicism from the moment of its formation in France theoretically denied personality in both the artist and the writer. The spirit of discipline, the suppression of the subjective will of the artist therefore necessitated the creation of normative poetics.

She subordinated the consciousness of the writer and artist to strict rules, defining a cruel regulation of the creative process. The fact that classicism was established in Russia in an era when the problems of the Renaissance were being intensively solved created conditions for aesthetic development that were unique in terms of complexity and originality.

The humanism of the Renaissance faced the anti-individualist philosophy of the new direction. The turbulent events of the era and the humanism of the Renaissance nourished the personal principle in literature, shaped the ideals of poets, and the rationalistic system of regulations and rules (in Russian classicism formulated in the epistle "On poetry" by A. P. Sumarokov) did not allow the manifestation of the author's personality in the work. So Russian classicism began its history with a sharply defined contradiction. This contradiction gave rise to the peculiarities of Russian classicism as a national version of the pan-European style. Science has long noted such features of his originality as a connection with folklore, the development of a satirical direction and satirical genres.

But this contradiction gave rise to another important phenomenon - deviations in the real practice of poets from the aesthetic normative code, which appeared under the onslaught of living reality.

For example, the odic works of the brilliant poet of Russian classicism Lomonosov also deviated from the rules, since the odes turned out to be an expression of the author's personality.

Digressions do not mean at all the absence of a historically regular, natural connection and dependence of the odes on the style of classicism. But dependence did not prevent Lomonosov from boldly breaking many "rules", from creating a fundamentally new artistic form of the ode, which corresponded to the needs of the historical era and opened up the possibility of poetic embodiment of specific phenomena of the political and national life of Russia.

Lomonosov turned out to be able to poetically generalize the experience of the nation at the turn of its world-historical existence conquered by it. In an effort to capture the vastness and vastness of the Russian state and the power of people's Russia, he created a geographical image of Russia.

This image of Russia in its grand scale from north to south - from the Neva to the Caucasus, and from west to east - from the Dnieper and Volga to China (Khina) carries a powerful charge of emotional energy that conveys the patriotism of a Russian person, his love, pride and admiration for his homeland. Lomonosov's poetry contributed to the development of the self-consciousness of the Russian people. Lomonosov's image of Russia was assimilated by the subsequent poetic tradition (see Batyushkov's poems "Crossing the Rhine" and Pushkin's "Slanderers of Russia").

Lomonosov, relying on the artistic experience of mankind, wrote deeply national, original odes, expressing the spirit of a rising nation. The pathos of his poetry was the idea of ​​asserting the greatness and power of Russia, youth, energy and creative activity of a nation that believes in its own strength and its historical vocation. The idea of ​​affirmation was born in the process of creative explanation and generalization of the experience, the real practice of the “Russian sons”.

The poetry created by Lomonosov existed next to the satirical direction, the initiator of which was Kantemir. The vitality of the Lomonosov trend was confirmed by the subsequent history of Russian poetry of the 18th-19th centuries.

History of Russian literature: in 4 volumes / Edited by N.I. Prutskov and others - L., 1980-1983

- ... maybe their own Platons
And quick-witted Newtons
Russian land to give birth.
M.V. Lomonosov

Russian writers of the 18th century

Full name of the writer	Years of life	The most significant works
PROKOPOVICH Feofan	1681-1736	"Rhetoric", "Poetics", "A commendable word about the Russian fleet"
KANTEMIR Antioch Dmitrievich	1708-1744	“To your own mind” (“On those who blaspheme the teaching”)
TREDIAKOVSKY Vasily Kirillovich	1703-1768	"Tilemakhida", "A new and concise way to compose Russian poetry"
LOMONOSOV Mikhail Vasilievich	1711-1765	"Ode on the Capture of Khotyn", "Ode on the Day of Ascension ...", “Letter on the Usefulness of Glass”, “Letter on the Usefulness of Church Books”, "Russian Grammar", "Rhetoric" and many others
SUMAROKOV Alexander Petrovich	1717-1777	"Dimitri the Pretender", "Mstislav", "Semira"
KNYAZHNIN Yakov Borisovich	1740-1791	"Vadim Novgorodsky", "Vladimir and Yaropolk"
FONVIZIN Denis Ivanovich	1745-1792	"Foreman", "Undergrowth", "Fox Treasurer", "Message to My Servants"
Derzhavin Gavrila Romanovich	1743-1816	"Lords and Judges", "Monument", "Felitsa", "God", "Waterfall"
RADISHCHEV Alexander Nikolaevich	1749-1802	"Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", "Liberty"

It was that troubled time
When Russia is young
Straining strength in the struggles,
Husband with the genius of Peter.
A.S. Pushkin

Old Russian literature left a rich heritage, which, however, was not known to the 18th century for the most part, because. most of the monuments of ancient literature were discovered and published at the end of the 18th and in the 19th century(for example, "The Tale of Igor's Campaign"). In this regard, in the 18th century, Russian literature relied on the Bible and European literary traditions.

Monument to Peter the Great ("The Bronze Horseman"), sculptor Matteo Falcone

18th century is age of enlightenment in Europe and in Russia. In one century, Russian literature has come a long way in its development. The ideological basis and prerequisites for this development were prepared by economic, political and cultural reforms. Peter the Great(reigned 1682 - 1725), thanks to which backward Russia turned into a powerful Russian Empire. Since the 18th century, Russian society has been studying world experience in all areas of life: politics, economics, education, science, and art. And if until the 18th century Russian literature developed in isolation from European literature, now it is mastering the achievements of Western literatures. Thanks to the activities of the associate of Peter Feofan Prokopovich, poets Antioch Cantemira and Vasily Trediakovsky, scientist-encyclopedist Mikhail Lomonosov works on the theory and history of world literature are being created, foreign works are being translated, and Russian versification is being reformed. This is how it started idea of ​​Russian national literature and Russian literary language.

Russian poetry that arose in the 17th century was based on a syllabic system, which is why Russian verses (verses) did not sound quite harmonious. In the 18th century, M.V. Lomonosov and V.K. Trediakovsky develop syllabo-tonic system of versification, which led to the intensive development of poetry, and the poets of the 18th century relied on Trediakovsky's treatise "A New and Brief Way of Composing Russian Poems" and Lomonosov's "Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry". The birth of Russian classicism is also associated with the names of these two prominent scientists and poets.

Classicism(from the Latin classicus - exemplary) is a trend in the art and literature of Europe and Russia, which is characterized by strict adherence to creative norms and rules and orientation to antique samples. Classicism originated in Italy in the 17th century, and as a trend it developed first in France, and then in other European countries. Nicolas Boileau is considered the creator of classicism. In Russia, classicism was born in the 1730s. in the work of Antioch Dmitrievich Kantemir (Russian poet, son of the Moldavian ruler), Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky and Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov. The work of most Russian writers of the 18th century is associated with classicism.

Artistic principles of classicism are.

1. The writer (artist) must depict life in ideal images(ideally positive or "perfectly" negative).
2. In the works of classicism strictly separated good and evil, high and low, beautiful and ugly, tragic and comic.
3. Heroes of classic works clearly divided into positive and negative at the same time, the names of the characters, as a rule, are "speaking", that is, they contain the characteristics of the hero.
4. Genres in classicism are also divided into "high" and "low":

High genres	Low genres
Tragedy	Comedy
Oh yeah	Fable
epic	Satire

5. Dramatic works obeyed the rule of three unities - time, place and action: the action took place within one day in the same place and was not complicated by side episodes. At the same time, a dramatic work necessarily consisted of five acts (actions).

The genres of ancient Russian literature are becoming a thing of the past. From now on, Russian writers use genre system in Europe which exists to this day.

M.V. Lomonosov

The creator of the Russian ode was Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov.

A.P. Sumarokov

The creator of the Russian tragedy - Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov. His patriotic plays were devoted to the most notable events in Russian history. The traditions laid down by Sumarokov were continued by the playwright Yakov Borisovich Kniazhnin.

HELL. Cantemir

The creator of Russian satire (satirical poem) - Antioch Dmitrievich Kantemir.

DI. Fonvizin

The creator of Russian comedy - Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin, thanks to which satire became enlightening. Its traditions at the end of the 18th century were continued by A.N. Radishchev, as well as the comedian and fabulist I.A. Krylov.

A crushing blow to the system of Russian classicism dealt Gavrila Romanovich Derzhavin, who started as a classicist poet, but violated in the 1770s. canons (creative laws) of classicism. He mixed high and low, civic pathos and satire in his works.

Since the 1780s the leading place in the literary process is occupied by a new direction - sentimentalism (see below), in line with which M.N. Muravyov, N.A. Lvov, V.V. Kapnist, I.I. Dmitriev, A.N. Radishchev, N.M. Karamzin.

The first Russian newspaper "Vedomosti"; number dated June 18, 1711

An important role in the development of literature begins to play journalism. Until the 18th century, there were no newspapers or magazines in Russia. The first Russian newspaper called Vedomosti in 1703 issued by Peter the Great.

In the second half of the century, literary journals also appeared: "All sorts of things" (publisher - Catherine II), "Drone", "Painter" (publisher N.I. Novikov), "Hell Mail" (publisher F.A. Emin). The traditions laid down by them were continued by the publishers Karamzin and Krylov.

In general, the 18th century is the era of the rapid development of Russian literature, the era of general enlightenment and the cult of science. In the 18th century, the foundation was laid that predetermined the beginning of the “golden age” of Russian literature in the 19th century.

Having entered a period of decline at the end of the 17th century, Kazakhstan was revived during the Enlightenment.

The new, educational culture coexisted throughout the 18th century. with enlightenment realism, and by the end of the century it becomes again the dominant artistic trend.

Enlighteners in many respects continue the traditions of the K. 17th century. They turned out to be close to the position expressed in K. of a person who is consciously related to the world and to himself, capable of subordinating his aspirations and passions to social and moral duty; pathos of civilization; rationalistic concept of artistic creativity.

However, the sociopolitical orientation of educational culture is changing. In the traditions of classicism, Voltaire creates tragedies imbued with the struggle against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, and the pathos of freedom. The appeal to antiquity as to the world of ideal archetypes, which was the essence of culture, including enlightenment culture, had deep roots in the ideology of the Enlightenment. Where enlighteners sought to penetrate beyond the external empiricism of life, to go beyond private life, they found themselves, as a rule, in the world of ideal abstractions, since in all their constructions they proceeded from an isolated individual and did not seek the essence of a person in the social conditions of his being. , not in history, but in abstractly understood human nature.

The literature of the Great French Revolution, which clothed heroic aspirations in ancient myths and legends (the works of M. J. Chenier and others), is closely connected with enlightenment cinema. necessary for them to hide from themselves the bourgeois-limited content of their struggle, in order to keep their enthusiasm at the height of the great historical tragedy" (K. Marx and F. Engels, ibid., vol. 8, p. 120).

Under the influence of French literature, French literature also developed in other European countries: in England (A. Pope and J. Addison), Italy (V. Alfieri and partly Ugo Foscolo), and Germany (J. K. Gottsched). The classicist works of Gottsched, wholly oriented towards French models, did not leave a significant mark in German literature, and only in the second half of the 18th century did they. a new German classicism is taking shape as an original artistic phenomenon (so-called Weimar classicism).

Unlike French, he puts forward moral and aesthetic problems to the fore. Its foundations were laid by J. I. Winkelmann, but it reached its highest peak with J. W. Goethe and F. Schiller in the Weimar period of their work. The "noble simplicity", harmony and artistic perfection of the Greek classics, which arose in the conditions of polis democracy, were opposed by German poets to the squalor of German reality and all modern civilization, crippling a person. Schiller and, to some extent, Goethe, sought in art the main means of educating a harmonious personality and, turning to antiquity, sought to create a new, modern, high-style literature capable of fulfilling this task.

In the epoch of the Napoleonic Empire, k. lost its lively progressive content. He was characterized by external official pomposity and splendor, cold and dead academicism. Nevertheless, as an epigone current, it existed in France until the 30s and 40s. 19th century

In the middle of the 18th century a new trend in k. arises, corresponding to enlightenment k. in literature and developing initially in polemics with rococo. In architecture, now more and more often they refuse rigid planning schemes, they strive to emphasize the constructive meaning of the order, special attention is paid to the interior and flexible planning of a comfortable residential building. The landscape environment of the "English" park becomes an ideal setting for a classic building of a new type.

Huge influence on K. 18 century. contributed to the development of archaeological knowledge about Greek and Roman antiquity (especially the excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii), as well as the theoretical works of I. I. Winkelmann, J. V. Goethe, and F. Militsius.

In the French architecture of this era, new architectural types were formed: an exquisitely intimate mansion, a laconic monumental public building, an open city square (architects J. A. Gabriel, J. J. Souflot). Civil pathos and lyrical dreaminess are combined in different ways in the plastic arts of J. B. Pigalle, E. M. Falcone, J. A. Houdon, the historical and mythological painting of J. M. Vienne, and the decorative landscapes of J. Robert.

On the eve of the French Revolution in architecture, there is a desire for a severe lapidarity of forms, for impressive didactic images, architects are increasingly turning to the motives of the Greek archaic, the art of Ancient Egypt, sometimes to the orderless system (buildings and projects by K. N. Ledoux, E. L. Bulle , J. J. Leke). These searches (noted also by the influence of the architectural etchings of G. B. Piranesi) served as the starting point for the late C., or Empire.

In French painting, the most important representative of the revolutionary trend was J. L. David, whose work is saturated with courageous drama and solemnity of figurative structure. In the era of Napoleon I, the features of magnificent representativeness (Ch. Percier, P. Fontaine, J.-F. Chalgrin) intensified in the architecture of the French Empire, which often led to excessive refinement of details, which also affected the decorative and applied arts. The painting of the late C., despite the appearance of individual major masters (D. Ingres), degenerates into an official-apologetic or sentimental-erotic salon trend.

At the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century in Western European literature and art, classicism dominated - a rule expressed in imitation of the art and poetry of ancient Greece and Rome. Classicism developed especially strongly in France. In Russian literature of the middle of the XVIII century. classicism also becomes the dominant trend, and in Russia classicism takes on peculiar forms.

In the work of major representatives of Russian classicism - Lomonosov, Sumarokov and Tredyakovsky - folk and realistic motifs find their noticeable expression. At this time, the works of Greek and Roman authors began to be intensively translated into Russian. The study of classical and Western European literature contributed to the expansion of intellectual interests, put forward new topics for Russian writers.

The representative of classicism in Russian literature of the middle of the XVIII century. was Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov (1718-1777).

A.P. Losenko. Portrait of A.P. Sumarokov. 1760

Sumarokov was a supporter of strengthening the political significance of the middle nobility, in which he saw the basis of the entire state order in Russia. He was hostile to the highest court nobility and in his works ridiculed ignorance and noble arrogance.

Of the works of Sumarokov, historical tragedies, love songs, comedies and satires were of particular importance. Even in tragedies written on Russian historical themes, the characters spoke and acted like Greek or Roman heroes. And with these shortcomings, the tragedies of Sumarokov played a positive role, as they served as material for the Russian theater. Sumarokov's comedies and satires were even more important. They prepared the way for the development of subsequent satirical literature. In the poetry of Sumarokov, a stream of Russian folklore is clearly detected. Sumarokov highly valued the social significance of literature.

Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin (1745-1792)

In the last quarter of the XVIII century. Classical tragedy is being replaced in Russia by national-Russian comedy with a pronounced social theme. Comedy, in order to be understandable and exciting, had to use Russian everyday material. This approach to Russian reality, to realism, we find in the works of Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin (1745-1792), who ridiculed the vices of noble society, its servility to the West. In the types bred in Fonvizin's wonderful comedies "The Brigadier" and "The Undergrowth", in the grumpy and greedy foreman, in the stupid and evil Prostakova, in the rude Skotinin, in the lazy and ignorant Mitrofanushka, readers recognized contemporary people.

Gavriil Romanovich Derzhavin (1743-1816)

A great merit in the simplification of poetic speech belongs to the outstanding Russian poet of the late 18th century. Gavriil Romanovich Derzhavin (1743-1816). Derzhavin introduced the folk Russian language into his poems and showed its great musicality and strength. Derzhavin was a poet of the noble empire, its power and its military successes. But at the same time, he tried to denounce the vices of strong "rulers", who shake the earth with their villainy, and shake the heavens with unrighteousness. Derzhavin, fighting the vices of the "rulers", thought by this to strengthen the feudal state.

Sentimentalists in Russian Literature

At the end of the XVIII century. in Russia, a new literary trend arose - sentimentalism, in the features of which the contradictions of Russian reality of the 18th century affected. The writers of this trend focused on the reproduction of human feelings ("sentimentalism" comes from the French word sentiment - feeling).

The largest representative of Russian sentimentalism was Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1765-1826). The Letters of a Russian Traveler, in which Karamzin describes his stay abroad, had a huge success with the reading public. Particularly famous was the work of N. M. Karamzin "Poor Liza", the theme of which is the unhappy love of a peasant girl for a nobleman. Subsequently, N. M. Karamzin moved away from fiction, devoting himself entirely to studies in Russian history.

Some Russian writers used sentimentalism as a means to depict pictures of a peaceful and happy village life that contradicted reality, full harmony between peasants and landlords. So, Vasily Maikov, two years after the suppression of the Pugachev uprising, wrote the comic opera A Village Holiday or Crowned Virtue. A choir of peasants was brought out in it, which was supposed to sing: "Having given the dues from us, we live in life blessed for the master's head."

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It is known that there are no two identical people in nature. Even doppelgangers, on closer inspection, are not at all identical. Nature has laid down an innumerable variety of species, which, ultimately, is an element of evolution. Surely many paid attention to the fact that everything in a person is different: even ears. So, there are several classifications of auricles. Of course, when it comes to personal identification, first of all, we mean the identification of corpses in forensic science. So, according to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, every year more than twenty thousand (!!!) unidentified corpses are found in the country. Therefore, this problem is of interest to a greater extent to experts in the criminal investigation department. ...

Personal identification by auricles in forensics

0 2810

Caterpillars are known pests. Of course, then they will become butterflies and, although they will remain the same harvest destroyers, they will acquire a certain colorfulness and delight the eye. As for their forerunner - caterpillars, or, as they are also called, larvae, they do not cause sympathy. Although some representatives are definitely photogenic. ...

Caterpillars are phytophages that eat leaves

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In addition to Russia and Europe, "agile lizards" live even in the north-west of Mongolia. However, perhaps it was from Mongolia that they came to Russia along with the hordes of Genghis Khan! Look at the two maps - the habitat of the "agile lizards" and the delineated border of the Mongol Empire - they overlap. There is an alternative opinion that this is no accident. ...

The Path of the Lizard: From Mongolia to Europe

0 1815

Ipoh is a city in Malaysia that began to develop rapidly at the turn of the 19th century. Now it is home to over seven hundred thousand inhabitants, surrounded by modern buildings. However, the buildings of the colonial era have also been preserved. Quite interesting are the graffiti on the walls of the old town (Old town), which were created by Ernest Zakharevich. The drawings appeared after the artist's trip around the country. This is how such images as "pedicab", "old man with a cup of coffee", "children on a paper airplane", "tea bags", "girl on a stool" and "hummingbird" turned out. ...

Graffiti on the walls of Ipoh, Malaysia

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MAXANTO correspondents attended the training "103 new features of active sales", which was held by the famous sales trainer Dmitry Tkachenko. ...

103 new features of active sales

0 2018

Today, the international publication motor1.com published a series of photos of the "mysterious prototype of a large sedan." The pictures were taken by the publication's photographers during sea trials on one of the frozen lakes in Sweden. And if some foreign readers are not quite familiar with the design of the future presidential limousine, which should be ready for the upcoming inauguration in 2018, then MAXANTO readers can easily guess under the camouflage the future limousine of the AURUS brand, and not at all Rolls-Royce or Bentley. ...

Test of the presidential limousine (project "Cortege") in Sweden

0 1975

They say you can't teach how to trade. But it's not. For example, recently deceased David Rockefeller Sr., despite the inherited capital, studied at the London School of Economics and Political Science. Moscow has been hosting the Sales and Marketing 2017 conference organized under the auspices and with the direct support of B2Bbasis for several years now. MAXANTO correspondents visited this interesting event to get acquainted with all the current trends in the field of marketing and promotion of services to the market. ...

Sales and Marketing - 2017: This Year's Trends

0 1927

When Jean-Claude Van Damme showed the splits on two moving Volvo trucks, the world choked with applause. But the Van Damme video is far from the first time artists have shown stretching between moving objects. Of course, the first to show people such tricks were circus performers. MAXANTO managed to find a photo of Vladimir Durov's students. In all likelihood, the picture dates from the 60s of the last century. In the photo - circus performer Vladislava Varjakoienė. ...

Twine on elephants, trucks, motorcycles

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Over the past decade, Satoshi Saikusa has created a number of projects that touch on themes such as night, memory and the fragility of being. Whether he works in a series of portraits, still lifes or installations, a Buddhist concept runs through all his work impermanence - with an emphasis on memento mori. ...

Photographer Satoshi Saikusa: themes of death, birth and sleep

0 1909

Eva Green is the fatal beauty from the latest reboot of the James Bond films. The same Vesper Lind, who left scars on the heart of agent 007. We will not speculate on the attractiveness of this woman. Today MAXANTO will show you the images she created in collaboration with Japanese photographer Satoshi Saikusa. ...

Eva Green: Bond girl in a Japanese lens

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Of course, we will not be original if we say that praying mantises are alien creatures. Of course, they live on Earth and are very common on it. But take a closer look at them: didn’t American film studios copy and copy their heads, creating their films about terrible aliens from outer space? Looking at them, only one thing calms: praying mantises are small insects. If you imagine that they would be at least the size of a cat or a dog, we assure you, when you meet them, you would feel uncomfortable. ...

Praying mantises: fiends from another planet?

0 1901

The performance is conceptual, however, as is the place where it is performed - after all, the Zuev House of Culture is one of the most striking and well-known monuments of constructivism in the world. But today we are not talking about that. The fact is that Oleg Dyachenko's film "Faster Than Rabbits" is completely devoid of a video sequence about phobias from the play, which immediately seems to decapitate the narrative. Comic episodes with Hamlet and in the Third Reich also deserve attention. MAXANTO invites you to watch episodes that were not included in the film. ...

Russian classicism in literature, music, architecture

Russian classicism in literature

Classicism became the leading trend in Russian literature in the 18th century and is associated with the names of M. Lomonosov, A. Sumarokov, D. Fonvizin. Classicism is characterized by the following genre forms: ode, tragedy, poem, comedy, poetic satire, fable, elegy. Classicism, as a literary movement, originated in Italy in the middle of the 16th century. In the 17th century, it received full artistic expression in France in the works of Corneille, Racine, Molière, La Fontaine.

In general, European classicism is inextricably linked with the era of absolutism. The originality of Russian classicism lies in the fact that it developed in the era of the formation of national statehood. This seriously affected literature, which became the most important means of establishing the ideas of citizenship.

The first representative of Russian classicism in literature is Antioch Kantemir (1708-1744). He became the founder of satire in Russia and the predecessor of D. I. Fonvizin, A. S. Griboyedov, N. V. Gogol. Defending Peter's reforms, Cantemir opposed the reactionary nobility and clergy.

Another representative of classicism in Russian literature is V. K. Trediakovsky (1703-1768). He was the first Russian professor, he completed his education at the Sorbonne. Trediakovsky wrote poems, odes, tragedies, fables, elegies. One of his main merits was the reform of versification. M. V. Lomonosov (1711-1765) Belinsky called "Peter the Great of our literature." This outstanding person has proved himself in various fields of scientific knowledge. At the same time, Lomonosov was a poet and philologist. He completed the reform of versification, marked the beginning of the formation of the Russian literary language and created the genre of the Russian ode.

A.P. Sumarokov (1718-1777) set as his task the education of the nobility, the establishment of civil ideals in it. He wrote, for the most part, tragedies. The listed writers belong to the first period of the development of Russian classicism (30-50s of the 18th century). Their work is united by the desire to solve national problems: the development of education and science, the creation of literature and the national language.

The second period in the development of classicism in Russian literature falls on the end of the 18th century and is associated with the names of D. I. Fonvizin, G. R. Derzhavin, Ya. comedies: "Foreman" and "Undergrowth". In his work, he turned to the negative aspects of Russian life and subjected them to sharp criticism. The largest representative of high poetry was G. R. Derzhavin (1743-1816). He worked in a wide variety of genres, but the most famous were his odes, combining lyrics with satire.

Ya. B. Knyazhnin (1742-1791) became famous for his comedies and the tragedy Vadim Novgorodsky, in which the heroic image of a citizen is proclaimed. On the whole, the second stage is characterized by civic motives that acquire a social connotation and a critical perception of Russian reality. The third stage in the development of Russian classicism in literature occupies the first third of the 19th century. It is associated with the names of A. S. Shishkov, A. S. Shirinsky-Shikhmatov, A. N. Gruzintsev. During this period, classicism begins to be supplanted by romanticism. Heavy odes and tragedies look outdated and do not meet the requirements of the times.

Russian classicism in architecture

In the history of Russian architecture, the period of classicism includes 1760-1820. In this area of ​​art, such signs of classicism as the cult of reason and ideal order and worship of ancient models were very clearly manifested. Classicism in architecture became a logical stage in the completion of the era of Peter's reforms and the rejection of the plastic redundancy of the Baroque.

The transition to classicism in architecture was based on the state structure of the Russian Empire, in which "enlightened absolutism" was proclaimed. Two state acts of Catherine II were of great importance. The reform of the administrative structure marked the beginning of city self-government. This led to the emergence of new types of public buildings: courts, treasuries, noble and merchant meetings, etc.

The decree of 1763 provided for the preparation of "special plans" for urban planning. The chaotic development of cities was replaced by clear planning. The flourishing of Russian culture led to the mass construction of theaters, museums, and libraries. A characteristic feature of Russian architecture was that the state always acted as the customer of large-scale construction. All the drawings of the era invariably contain the inscription of the emperor (empress): "Be according to this." The construction of palaces, estates, museums is often carried out on the personal orders of the imperial family. The initiators of the construction of outstanding architectural monuments were also often wealthy nobles: the Yusupovs, the Golitsyns, the Sheremetevs. Medium and small landowners could not use the services of famous architects. Nevertheless, equipping their estates, they imitated the general style of the era.

Merchants and industrialists in construction are also inclined towards classicism, thanks to the common sense and direct calculation proclaimed by them. The architecture of Russian classicism establishes a new system of values. "Enlightened monarchy" is identified with dignity and order. On one level with pomp and splendor rises "noble simplicity." Successes of the Russian army in the late 18th - early 19th centuries. lead to the fact that in architecture there are invariably military plots designed to emphasize the importance of military prowess.

Thanks to the development of education in Russia, a huge interest in ancient history is awakening. The art of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome becomes a role model, which inevitably finds expression in Russian architecture. Antiquity is admired by both hardened serf-owners and representatives of the educated nobility. There are three periods in the development of classicism architecture in Russia: "early", "strict" and "high" classicism. The early period is characterized by the preservation of the influence of the Baroque style, which is steadily declining. This period falls on the reign of Catherine II and is associated with the names of Rinaldi, V. Bazhenov, D. Quarenghi, M. Kazakov and others.

The first third of the 19th century is the period of "strict" classicism, which is often called the term "Empire". Russian architecture is guided by French models. It is designed to emphasize the power of the Russian Empire in every possible way. Among the architects of this period, K. Rossi, A. Zakharov, A. Voronikhin and others stand out. The second third of the 19th century is "late" or "Nikolaev" classicism, which is characterized by official or "state" buildings. This period is represented by the names of V. Beretti, A. Melnikov and others.

Russian classicism in painting

In the 18th century, the nature of Russian painting changed significantly. In the Middle Ages, it was completely under the influence of the church. Artists were required to depict only God and the saints. In general, iconography dominated. The Age of Enlightenment freed the painters from this and turned their attention to the person. Portraiture begins to enjoy great popularity.

In the spirit of classicism, the so-called. ceremonial and allegorical portraits. The first is characterized by the image of a person in a proud pose, reflecting his greatness (portrait of A. B. Kurakin, artist V. L. Borovikovsky). In an allegorical portrait, a person appeared in the form of an ancient deity or hero. The most striking example is the painting by D. G. Levitsky "Catherine II - Legislator", in which the Empress is depicted in the image of the goddess of justice Themis.

The borrowing of European achievements begun by Peter allowed Russian artists to turn to new genres (landscape, still life) and master new techniques: chiaroscuro, linear and aerial perspective, oil painting. Classicism left the most noticeable trace in Russian historical painting. The artists took subjects for paintings from ancient history and mythology, which is considered a role model.

One of the most striking examples is the painting by A. P. Losenko "Farewell of Hector to Andromache". The scene was not chosen by chance: Hector appears as a true citizen and patriot, for whom the public good comes first. One of the outstanding artists of the era of classicism was I. N. Nikitin (1690-1742), who was the first to turn to portraiture. The most famous work of the master is a portrait of Chancellor G. I. Golovkin. He also owns the famous painting "Peter I on his deathbed".

A.P. Antropov (1716-1795) is known for two ceremonial portraits of Peter III. A. P. Losenko (1737-1773) is considered the founder of Russian historical painting. His most famous canvases are "Vladimir and Rogneda" (for this picture the artist received the title of professor at the Academy of Arts) and "Hector's Farewell to Andromache".

Russian classicism in music

Russian music remained dependent on the church longer than other areas of art. Church music until the end of the XVIII century remained the only form of creativity of Russian composers. At the same time, foreign musicians coming to Russia did not pay any attention to the established national musical traditions. This led to the fact that Russian music was "late" in the transition to classicism.

During the formation of the national school of composers (the last third of the 18th century), classicism was already beginning to lose its position in art. Therefore, in Russian music, classicism did not become the dominant trend, there was a mixture and mutual influence of various styles. The most famous Russian composers of this era include D. S. Bortyansky, V. A. Pashkevich, E. I. Fomin, in whose work elements of classical imagery are noticeable.

Fomin's "Orpheus" has become a unique work in which classicism is combined with pre-romantic and sentimentalist elements. Bortyansky's music contains the harmony, completeness and balance of form inherent in classicism. But at the same time, classical rigor is organically combined with romantic passion and sensitive tones akin to sentimentalism.

Russian music of the late 18th century was generally at the level of "early" European classicism. At that time, symphonism already dominated Europe as the leading method of artistic generalization in music. Russian composers were just beginning to master this method. The main feature of the work of Russian composers of the second half of the 18th century is the preservation of national characteristics with an active perception of European norms of musical thinking.

The most important achievement of this period was the formation of the Russian school of composers, which manifested itself in opera, in monumental choral music and in chamber genres.

• The invasion of classicism in architecture is vividly illustrated by the failure of the famous architect Rastrelli. In 1757 he designed the Gostiny Dvor in St. Petersburg in the baroque style. But the construction, at the request of the merchants, was completed in the spirit of "more simple" (i.e., cheaper) classicism, designed by J.-B. Wallen Delamotte.
• The window to Europe "cut through" by Peter I could not limit the traditional unlimited nature of tsarist power.
• In 1732, I. N. Nikitin, who is considered the main artist of Russia, was accused of "malice" against F. Prokopovich on a denunciation. Together with his brother, he spent five years in the Peter and Paul Fortress, and then was exiled to Tobolsk.
• One of the outstanding Russian architects of classicism, V. I. Bazhenov, was awarded a business trip abroad for his success. In France, his talent was appreciated: Louis XV offered Bazhenov to become the architect of the French court. The architect refused, explaining this with one phrase: "I can't live without a homeland."